You’re familiar with magnetism, but do you know what it looks like at the smallest scale? Take a block of iron, for example. It’s ferromagnetic, which means if you place it near a permanent magnet – like a refrigerator magnet – the block will also become magnetic to a large extent, larger than materials that aren’t ferromagnetic.
If you zoom in to the iron atoms, you’ll see a difference between areas that are magnetised and areas that aren’t. Every subatomic particle has four quantum numbers, sort of like its Aadhaar or social security ID. No two electrons in the same system can have the same ID, i.e. one, some or all of these numbers differ from one electron to the next. One of these numbers is the spin quantum number, and it can have one of two values, or states, at any given time. Physicists refer to these states as ‘up’ and ‘down’. In the magnetised portions, in the iron block, you’ll see that electrons in the iron atoms will either all be pointing up or all down. This is a defining feature of magnetism.
Scientists have used it to make hard-disk drives that are used in computers. Each drive stores information by encoding it in electrons’ spins using a magnetic field, where, say, ‘1’ is up and ‘0’ is down, so a series of 1s and 0s become a series of ups and downs.
In the iron block, the parts that are magnetised are called domains. They demarcate regions of uniform electron spin in three dimensions in the block’s bulk. For a long time, scientists believed that the ‘walls’ of a domain – i.e. the imaginary surface between areas of uniform spin and areas of dis-uniform spin – could move at up to around 0.5 km/s. If they moved faster, they could destabilise and collapse, allowing a kind of magnetic chaos to spread within the material. They arrived at this speed limit from their theoretical calculations.
The limit matters because it says how fast the iron block’s magnetism can be manipulated, to store or modify data for example, without losing that data. It also matters for any other application that takes advantage of the properties of ferromagnetic materials.
In 2020, a group of researchers from the Czech Republic, Germany, and Sweden found that if you stacked up a layer of ferromagnets, the domain walls could move much faster – as much as 14 km/s – without collapsing. Things can move fast in the subatomic realm, yet 14 km/s was still astonishing for ferromagnetic materials. So scientists set about testing it.
A group from Italy, Sweden, and the US reported in a paper published in Physical Review Letters on December 19 (preprint here) that they were able to detect domain walls moving in a composite material at a stunning 66 km/s – greater than the predicted speed. Importantly, however, existing theories that explain a material’s magnetism at the subatomic scale don’t predict such a high speed, so now physicists know their theories are missing something.
In their study, the group erected a tiny stack of the following elements, in this order: tantalum, copper, a cobalt-iron compound, nickel, the cobalt-iron compound, copper, and tantalum. Advanced microscopy techniques revealed that the ferromagnetic nickel layer (just a nanometre wide) had developed domains of two shapes: some were like stripes and some formed a labyrinth with curved walls.
The researchers then tested the domain walls using the well-known pump-probe technique: a blast of energy first energises a system, then something probes it to understand how it’s changed. The pump here was an extremely short pulse of infrared radiation and the probe was a similarly short pulse of ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
The key is the delay between the pump and probe pulses: the smaller the delay, the greater the detail that comes to light. (Three people won the physics Nobel Prize this year for finding ways to make this delay as small as possible.) In the study it was 50 femtoseconds, or 500 trillionths of a second.
The UV pulse was diffracted by the electrons in nickel. A detector picked up the diffraction patterns and the scientists ‘read’ them together with computer simulations of the domains to understand how they changed.
How did the domains change? The striped walls were practically unmoved but the curved walls of the labyrinthine pattern did move, by about 17-23 nanometres. The group made multiple measurements. When they finally calculated an average speed (which is equal to distance divided by time), they found it to be 66 km/s, give or take 20 km/s.
The observation of extreme wall speed under far-from-equilibrium conditions is the … most significant result of this study,” they wrote in their paper. This is true: even though the researchers found that the domain-wall speed limit in a multilayer ferromagnetic material is much higher than 0.5 km/s – as the 2020 group predicted – they also found it to be a lot higher than the expected 14 km/s. Of course, it’s also stunning because the curved domain walls moved at more than 10-times the speed of sound in that material – and the more curved a portion was, the faster it seemed to move.
The researchers concluded that “additional mechanisms are required to fully understand these effects” – as well as that they could be “important” to explain “ultrafast phenomena in other systems such as emerging quantum materials”.
This is my second recent post about scientists finding something they didn’t expect to, but in settings more innocuous than in the vast universe or at particle smashers. Read the first one, about the way paint dries, here.